Effective communication

Philosophy and Critical Thinking: Argument Structure

" It is not enough just to have opinions. That doesn´t make knowledge." HETHERINGTON

"Knowledge, on the other side, is very objective. Belief is very subjective." GIRLE

Cogency is the quality of appealing to reason. A cogent argument is one that makes rational sense. It´s an appeal to logic.

Argument Structure: if the conclusion follows logically from the premises, we say the argument is valid.

Key questions in this module:

What is an argument is and how it is structured?

What makes an argument compelling?

How do we evaluate arguments?

What is knowledge?

What does it mean to doubt something?

What is the relationship between doubt and knowledge?

Fonte: https://courses.edx.org/courses/course-v1:UQx+META101x+3T2017/course/

Types of writing

Successful in reading

You should be able to:

1- Synthesize information presented in the text; Identify the main ideas.

2- Identify the author´s rhetorical purpose.

3- Scan the text to find specific pieces of information.

4- Understand academic vocabulary used in the passage.

TOEFL® Test Preparation

 "Advice from University Admissions Staff:

- Having strong skills in English 

- Learning to do it well enough to be heard, to be understood, to show everybody that you know what you´re talking about and you are ready to contribute excellent great new ideas in the worldwide dialog. 

CHALLENGES OF READING

* Features of academic reading

     - TO be successful on the TOEFL test, you need to read academic texts. 

* 3 Keys characteristics of academic texts:

     - Formal language

     - The material is presented in a logical and objective way. Based on facts, not feelings. 

     - Academic texts are conceptually complex. 

* How to approach the TOEFL IBT reading passage

     - It´s a good idea to begin by focusing on the big picture; what topic is going to be discussed in the passage? Take a look at the title. 

     - Use the technique called skimming. Take a glance at the first few sentences of the first paragraph. Then take a look at the first sentence in each of the other paragraphs. 

     - Is the author explaining a phenomenon, or presenting opposing points of view? While you skim, pay attention to the structure, or organization of the passage. In the form of an outline. 

     - It´s also important to think about why the author has included pieces of information. 

     - Understand the main idea being discussed. 

     - After, begin to look at the questions. Once you read each question, you can go back to the passage to look in a targeted way for the information you need to answer that question. (Scanning). "

Fonte: https://courses.edx.org/courses/course-v1:ETSx+TOEFLx+1T2018/course/

Outlines

INFORMAL OUTLINES 

In informal outlines, you organize your notes into sections that correspond to different parts of your essay. For example:

Introduction

- Discuss background of book 

- State my thesis 

Part 1

- Give background information on the book.

- Talk about its main argument. 

- Introduce the setting. 

FORMAL OUTLINES

Have the same concept behind them as informal ones, but they have specific formats. Formal oulines have more details than informal otlines, and formal outlines also use certain methods of showing relationship between ideas. 

Formal outlines often use Roman numerals, although using Arabic numbers is perfectly acceptable. 

After indicating the main sections of the essay, subparts are indicated with capital letters. 

1. Introduction 

     A. Background information 

     B. Thesis

     C. Preview of supporting reasons

2. Main Body

     A Main point 1 

     B Main pont 2 

etc.

If those sub-parts have parts, then their level is shown with small letters (or small Arabic numbers if using a Roman numeral scheme) and a further indention: 

1. Introduction 

     A. Background information 

          a. Idea 1 

          b. Idea 2

     B. Thesis

          a. Idea 1 

          b. Idea 2

     C. Preview of supporting reasons

          a. Idea 1 

          b. Idea 2

HOW TO RESEARCH EFFECTIVELY

Good academic writing uses information from multiple sources to support its main ideas. 

- Visitng the library

- Using the internet

- Talking to experts 

Definition of an essay - HOW TO WRITE AN ACADEMIC ESSAY COURSE BY EDX- WRITEX

The dictionary defines an essay "as a short literary composition on a particular theme or subject, usually in prose and generally analytic, speculate, or interpretative." [dictionary.com]

In other words, essays can take many forms. However, we are dealing with academic essays in this course, and they have certain expectations. 

- An introductory paragraph with a thesis statement that is arguable. 

- Body paragraphs (no particular number, as few as two, but the upper limit is high). 

- A conclusion

- A bibliography that cites the sources of information used in the essay. 

HOW CAN I WRITE LONG ESSAYS? 

1- Start right away or as soon as possible. 

2- How long your essay should be, what the topic is, read the directions twice. 

3- Make yourself a schedule

4- Give yourself a deadline to do assignment.

5- Do some research if you need to. 

6- Research doesn´t mean just oing to the library; ir can mean talking to people, observing your environment, and other ideas. 

7- Take notes on everything. 

8- If you read something, write down quotations you might use and the source of those quotations. 

9- Write your thesis statement. 

10- It´s a good time to think of at least three pieces of evidence for your thesis. 

11- Start writing your outline. 

12- Include the details you want to be sure to cover in your paper. 

13- It´s time to start your first draft. 

Include the details you want - quotations, arguments. 

Include a bibliography if that´s relevant. 

Make sure everything makes sense and your points are logical. 

Your essay should have strong transitions and not just jump around from topic to topic.

Correct any informal or conventional language or any place where your vocabulary is not accurate.  

Brainstorming techniques

- Free writing: you write anything that comes into your mind when you think about the topic. When you think you have written all that you can, write for more 5 minutes. The most interesting ideas often come when you run out of the obvious ideas. 

- Concept mapping: Concept maps illustrates the relationship between pieces of information in an interconnected way. The main idea in the center or top of a piece of paper (or use one of the many software programs available). Then, add connected ideas around it. You can use different colors to indicate different ideas, or include drawings, photographs…

Introduction to the thesis statement

First thing to do: Establish your topic! - Remember, it is not yet thesis statements - just topics or the main idea of a paper. In order to create a thesis, you have to add an argument or an opinion. It has to be a point of view that is arguable or open to interpretation. 

- So, how do you know if you have a good thesis? If everyone agrees with your ideas, you don´t have a thesis. 

- What makes a good thesis statement?

First, it´s focused; it has a very clear point; it has just one main idea. 

Be careful about trying to put too many ideas into your thesis statement. 

A good thesis statement is specific; it´s open to different interpretations. 

- What is NOT a thesis statement?

A thesis has a point of view. I has an opinion about the subject, but it is not the subject. 

MORE ON THESIS STATEMENTS:

- Every academic essay you write should have a main idea, which is supported through an argument(s) you make. Your thesis will reflect the arguments you are making about the main idea in a clear way. 

- A thesis statement should present your argument in one or two sentences. A thesis generally has two parts: a statemant of the topic, and an argument or position about that topic. 

REMEMBER! Your thesis statement should express one main ideaa. If you have more than 1 main idea about the topic, narrow it down before you begin writing. 

Paragraphs

- A paragraph takes many different forms. In academic writing, paragraphs are often long. They usually include a topic sentence, body sentences, and a concluding or transitional sentence. 

- The paragraph is a unit of writing expressing one specific idea, and is made up one or more sentences. 

* Academic writing: Paragraphs often have 3 parts: a topic sentence, one or more body sentences supporting the topic sentence, and a concluding sentence that transitions to the next paragraph. (or ends the essay). 

COHERENCE AND DEVELOPMENT:

In academic essay writing, a good paragraph is organized so that makes sense to the reader. Each sentence leads logically to the next, and is connected through transition words or other connecting words. In addition to a topic sentence and a main idea, an effective paragraph is coherent and develops its idea. 

COHERENCE

Coherence makes a paragraph understandable to a reader. 

- use logical and verbal connections. 

-make sure that each sentence in a paragraph relates in some way to the topic sentence. you can create these connections through the use of words("verbal connections"). For example:

Repeat key words

Use synonyms for key words.

Use pronouns to link sentences together

Link sentences with transition words. 

DEVELOPMENT

Refers to the support you have for your topic sentence. A well-developed paragraph should have an adequate number of sentences to support the main idea. Here are some ways you can make sure your paragraphs are developed. You can:

Use examples.

Give data.

Quote other, either directly or through paraphrasing. 

Tell a story.

Define your key words.

Compare or contrast ideas.

Examine causes and effects. 

SIGNPOSTS AND TRANSITIONS

SIGNPOSTS 

It helps the readers find their way. Signposts are important for readers, as they help the, understand your organization and thought process. 

eg: 

The purpose of this paper is ...

The previous research has shown...

The next section will illustrate... 

TRANSITIONS

- Are phrases or sentecnes that help you move from one idea to the next. Transitions are often used at the ends of paragraphs to create a conncetion between ideas, from one paragraph to the next. Common transitions include:

Moreover

Nevertheless

In addition

Similarly

On the other hand 

In conclusion

 

What makes an effective sentence?

* Grammatically, a sentence needs a subject and a predicate.

*Stylistically, it needs much more:

-Clarity: A sentence should be clear to the reader.

- Well chosen vocabulary: Choose words whose meaning you are sure of, and use them correctly.

- Strong verbs: When possible, use verbs that show the action of the sentence.

- A limited number of clauses and prepositions: The more clauses and prepositions you have, the harder it can be to understand.

- Subject-verb agreement: be sure you can identify the subject of your sentence, then make sure the verb agrees with it in number.

- Correct verb tense.


Attention!

Vary your sentences lengths (the measurement or extent of something from end to end).

. If all your sentences are short, your writing sounds "choppy" (irregular, broken waves, uneven in style).

. If all your sentences are long, your writing can be overly complicated and hard to understand.

Parts of a sentence

-The parts of sentences are not the same as parts of speech. 

-One sentence part is the subject. The subject of a sentence could be a noun, a pronoun, or even another sentence. 

-The two parts to a sentence are the subject and predicate. 

- Other important parts of a sentecne are clauses and phrases. 

Phrase: a group of words, but there is no subject doing anything. 

eg. leaving the theather. / walking into a building.

A clause: a group of worda that has a subject that is doing something. 

eg. I like friendly people.(independent) / because she smiled at him. (dependent)  

Brief Description of Writing Types/ Academic Writing and Business Writing

"Essay: a composition (usually short) on a specific idea or subject, usually in prose form. Essays take different forms, such as persuasive, analytical, and many others.

Example: My essay for this course will be about the history of the Roman alphabet. 

Email: a message sent over the internet, usually using software for formatting.

Example: I need to send my supervisor email about my upcoming vacation time.

Journal entry: a style of personal writing, recording ideas, events of the day, responses to reading, etc.

Example: Our professor asked us to make journal entries about our opinions on the book we are reading. 

Memo: a somewhat informal message, usually sent between two or more employees of the same company, concerning company business

Example: I received a memo this morning about a new policy for business travel.

Academic paper: a write-up of an experiment, research project, or opinion, meant to be read by other scholars. An academic paper usually involves citations to other literature.

Example: I read an academic paper on the subject of revision and editing that was very interesting. 

Letter: a formal, written communication, sent either over the internet as an attachment to an email message or by regular postal mail on paper.

Example: Our office received a letter from the government saying that our building plans have been approved.

Research report: an explanation of a research project, usually divided into subsections such as abstract, introduction, methods, results, etc.

Example: Professor Valdez's laboratory published a research report, detailing the experiment they conducted with ozone. 

Proposal: a written document that puts forward ideas for a business innovation, funding, or other project.

Example: Ms. Jones submitted a proposal to increase her department's budget.

Book review: a written opinion and analysis of a book relevant to the writer's field of study

Example: Dr. Wang wrote a very interesting book review of The Underground Railroad, which was published in the New York Review of Books. 

Report: a written description of a business activity

Example: Our CEO has asked for a report on recent updates to our contract.

Review of literature: a report, analysis, and synthesis of a number of different pieces of writing on a related subject.

Example: I have to write a review of the literature on English teaching in Uruguay. 

Personnel/instructions/procedures manuals: documentation of processes or procedures to follow.

Example: The company personnel manual outlines the rules for hiring employees.

Thesis or dissertation: a longer piece of research writing typically assigned in order to complete a degree

Example: Students pursuing a master's degree usually have to write a thesis. 

Slide presentation: Outlines, bullet points, graphs, and charts brought together to help in a presentation of an idea

Example: Jennifer and I are working with PowerPoint to put our slide presentation together.

Slide presentation: Outlines, bullet points, graphs, and charts brought together to help in a presentation of an idea

Example: Jennifer and I are working with PowerPoint to put our slide presentation together. 

Pitch: A very brief proposal; it can be done in a presentation, email, letter, or a casual conversation

Example: My pitch for a new product is only a paragraph long".

Fonte: https://courses.edx.org/courses/course-v1:BerkeleyX+ColWri2.2x+1T2018/courseware/e30211a9f78d435cb700935a1a1abb77/c8923cfeff024c1c80404423c9c01745/?child=first. Accessed on February 18th, 2018.

Academic texts

What makes an academic text?

Some characteristics:

- The text is logical and objective. It is always based on facts, not feelings. 

- Fomal language.

How to read academic texts?

- Begin focusing on the main topic. Take a look at the title; after reading the first few sentences of the first paragraph and the first sentence of the other paragraphs. 

- Pay attention to the organization (structure) of the text. 

- Think about the reason for the author has written such informations (the author´s purpose).

- Understand academic vocabulary used in the text. 

- Identify the main ideas.  

Writing a research paper

I- Introduction: Write one clear sentence; stating the thesis (focus) of your paper. 

II- Body: Supporting the main ideas (subpoints) of your essay; after creating a trasition to the conclusion. 

III- Conclusion: Restate the thesis. 

Pay attention:

- Your paper should persuade readers of an idea based on evidence.

- Includ relevant examples, supporting evidence, and information from academic texts or other credible sources. 

- Relevance is essential.

- Use linking words at the begining of paragraphs to help the readers follow the development of the essay.

- Check the grammar and spelling. 

Essay Checklist

Fonte: www.wonderfullifee.com

INTRODUCTION
𑂽Did you clearly state your thesis?
𑂽Have you effectively introduced the reader to your topic?
𑂽Does your thesis answwer the research question?

BODY
𑂽Is the main idea clearly and effectively stated?
𑂽Is the main concept clearly discussed?
𑂽Did you cite all borrowed information?
𑂽Does the evidence support your argument?
𑂽Do all body paragraphs follow a similar structure?

CONCLUSION
𑂽Did you summarize your argument?
𑂽Did you restate your thesis?
𑂽Did you make larger connections?
𑂽Does the conclusion flow from the body?

STYLE/ EDITING
𑂽Is your language formal?
𑂽Are sentences concise and free from unncessary words and content?
𑂽Do sentences flow properly?
𑂽Is grammar and spelling correct?
𑂽Is the paper free from contractions? (Don´t, it´s, etc)
𑂽Did you REread your paper? Once? Twice?

REFERENCES
𑂽Does everything have a cite?
𑂽Are references and citations properly formatted?
𑂽Have you used enough credible sources?
𑂽Did you include a reference page?

Silent Letters

"B" - We do not pronounce "B" when:

- there is a "M" before it. 

eg: COMB - TUMB - BOMB 

- usually there is a "T" after it. 

eg: DEBT 

Improving your writing

- Wherever you go, carry a notebook with you! Write whenever you can.
- When writing, avoid redundancy.
- Concise writing: Don´t use more words than you need to say something.
- Use precise nouns or verbs. Don´t use vague words.
- Be clear!
- Use "strong verbs"; Intead of writing - I found a solution to the problem, write - I solved the problem.
- Avoid unnecessary modifiiers like "many", "really", and so on.